Тип кровли многоквартирного дома: Виды кровель жилых многоквартирных домов

Оформление крыши многоэтажки в собственность: алгоритм действий

В российских реалиях жителям высотных домов, кроме их собственных квартир, обычно доступны только лестничные пролеты, входные группы, придомовые территории и паркинг, если он есть. О том, что можно использовать в своих целях или на общее благо еще и кровлю, люди обычно не задумываются. И крыши простаивают без дела. А ведь у них есть множество интересных и полезных способов применения. Переведение крыши в разряд эксплуатируемых дает возможности улучшить качество жизни в доме, повысить стоимость квадратного метра в нем, разнообразить досуг детей и взрослых и даже приносить пользу обществу и планете.

Мы расскажем, какие существуют способы использования кровель многоэтажек в России и других странах, какие их типы для этого подходят, какие нет и почему. Также поговорим о том, как оформить крышу в собственность в РФ, какие подводные камни ждут жильцов на каждом этапе пути, как с ними справиться, каков правильный алгоритм действий и в какие инстанции обращаться для решения вопроса.

Варианты использования эксплуатируемых крыш в России и мире

На плоской крыше многоэтажного дома можно открыть ресторан, разбить мини-парк, зимний сад, смотровую площадку. В США кровли используют под бассейны, барбекю-зоны. В Испании на них обустраивают террасы для загорания, в Германии — огороды. В Китае, Нидерландах и Соединенных Штатах Америки на крышах строят дома, пентхаусы и даже виллы с садами и ландшафтными конструкциями, открывают полноценные фермы. Такие сельскохозяйственные угодья могут давать тысячи кг овощей в год. Например, кровельная усадьба активиста из Нью-Йорка площадью в 1 га за 24-месячный период приносит урожай до 23 тонн различных сезонных культур.

В Японии и Греции кровли используют как полноценные этажи — на них открывают детские сады, коворкинг-центры. В Китае концепт культурных насаждений на кровлях решает несколько задач: такие фермы улучшают экологическую ситуацию в городах, приносят урожай, доход, обеспечивают рабочие места в агросегменте, стимулируют активность туристов и помогают прививать любовь к природе у подрастающего поколения. В Европе и Азии на таких «дополнительных этажах» можно встретить музеи культуры и архитектуры и даже храмы. В РФ размах пока скромнее — эксплуатация кровель ограничивается разбитием скверов, зон отдыха, строительством пентхаусов. В Крыму на крышах одноэтажек открывают парковки, чтобы разгрузить улицы.

Что оформление крыши в собственность даст жильцам дома

Благоустройство кровельных территорий способно не только украсить район нестандартными зелеными насаждениями, предоставить взрослым и детям дополнительное место для активного досуга и помочь бороться со смогом. Эффектное и практичное освоение крышной площади многоэтажного дома увеличивает инвестиционную привлекательность квадратных метров в нем. Стоимость квартир вырастает на 8-20% (в зависимости от того, в общей собственности находится кровля или часть крыши становится приватными владениями жильцов последних этажей).

Интересно: Чаще всего благоустройство крыш проводится на домах класса «бизнес» и «премиум»; занимаются этим госучреждения и управляющие компании, но преобразить кровлю многоэтажки по силам и самим жильцам.

 

Ниже представлены новостройки «бизнес-класса»:

Не все типы кровель подойдут

Использовать получится не каждую крышу. Больший простор для реализации интересных проектов есть у жителей новостроек. У зданий старого фонда кровли часто скатные — в разряд эксплуатируемых их перевести не получится.

Какой должна быть крыша, чтобы получить у властей разрешение на ее эксплуатацию:

• с ровной поверхностью;
• достаточно прочной, чтобы выдержать предполагаемые нагрузки.

Играет роль и прочность конструкции самого дома.
Алгоритм действий: с чего начать, как действовать, к кому обращаться

Собрания жильцов

Перевод кровли в собственность дома — первый шаг на пути ее реконструкции. Чтобы все владельцы квартир, находящихся в здании, получили доступ на крышу, она должна обрести статус эксплуатируемой. До этого момента по закону возможность выходить на нее есть только у обслуживающих компаний, разнорабочих и представителей госструктур. Решение о реконструкции кровельных площадей и переведении их в собственность жильцов принимается на их общедомовом собрании.

Важно: чтобы начать оформление крыши в собственность, нужно провести общее собрание жильцов, решение о переводе кровли в разряд эксплуатируемых должно быть единогласным («за» должны проголосовать 100% владельцев квартир в доме).

На собрании нужно составить протокол. Что должно быть в нем отражено: согласие абсолютно всех жильцов на реконструкцию и использование крыши, перечисление в общих чертах ее предполагаемых видоизменений. Затем в Росреестр нужно подать заявку на регистрацию, где кровлю признают или не признают собственностью владельцев квартир. Протокол собрания и сбор документов для обращения к властям лучше доверить юристу. Это ускорит процесс и увеличит шансы получить утвердительный ответ.

Следующий этап — повторное собрание жильцов, на котором предстоит решить, что именно будет делаться на крыше. Когда компромисс будет найден (для этого за один из вариантов использования кровли должны проголосовать минимум 2/3 участников), составьте документ, отражающий решение собрания, и направьте его в институт жилищного проектирования. Там вам составят проект реконструкции. Его нужно согласовать в строительном надзоре и с локальными властями, в чьей компетенции находится территория, на которой расположено здание.

Получение ключей от крыши

Согласно ст. 36 ЖК РФ и ст. 290 ГК РФ, все жильцы дома имеют право использовать крышные площади наравне с помещениями здания, находящимися в их общей собственности (подъездами, лестничными клетками, лифтами). Получить ключи от кровли любой владелец квартиры дома может, обратившись с письменным запросом в коммунальную компанию, обслуживающую это здание. Отказать в их выдаче вам могут, опираясь на п. 4.6.1.22 Правил и норм технической эксплуатации жилищного фонда, ссылаясь на небезопасность нахождения на кровле. Помните, Жилищный кодекс на вашей стороне (п. 8 ст. 5 ЖК РФ, по сути, «отменяет» вышеуказанный запрет): получить доступ к крыше вы имеете право, невзирая ни на что.

Важно: если в коммунальных структурах вам откажут выдать ключи, обращайтесь в вышестоящие инстанции — в Жилищную инспекцию, если не поможет — в прокуратуру.

Откуда брать деньги

Средства на обустройство крыши собирают сами жильцы. Важно понимать: решение об эксплуатации кровли добровольное, и никакие органы не обязаны выделять бюджет на ее преображение. Кто из жильцов по сколько сбрасывается, нужно решить на собрании — желательно на втором, когда решается, как будет использована крыша. Также нужно понимать, что деньги на преображение кровли (закупку материалов, инвентаря, оплату труда рабочих, элементы обустройства) кто-то может и не сдать. Но пользоваться результатами ваших стараний смогут все жильцы, запретить скрягам находиться на кровле вы не сможете.

Когда у вас на руках будут разрешение от властей на эксплуатацию крыши, ключи от нее и нужная для реконструкции сумма, можно приступать. Осталось решить, кто будет контролировать процесс преображения кровли, заниматься закупкой всего необходимого и благоустройством новой территории, в какие компании обращаться (если своими силами претворять задуманное в жизнь нет желания или возможности). На собрании жильцов для этих целей можно выбрать одну или несколько групп ответственных, разделив обязанности между активистами.

Трудности, которые подстерегают: бюрократический гнет

Следите, чтобы все официальные нюансы были соблюдены — при получении разрешений, составлении проекта и на остальных этапах важна каждая подпись, каждая справка и сноска. Если что-то упустить, власти вынудят снести и убрать все, что на крыше сделано — вас или управляющую компанию дома. И затраты на благоустройство уйдут в никуда. Плюс, если приведением кровли в первозданный вид будут заниматься не жильцы, все расходы на это все равно взыщут с них, скорее всего, через суд.

Также собственников жилья с «самостроем» на крыше могут привлечь к административной ответственности за самоуправство, произвольный захват кровли и ее порчу, если в процессе благоустройства ее целостность была нарушена. Это может грозить крупными штрафами и также судебными разбирательствами с городскими властями, управляющими компаниями. Поэтому мы рекомендуем решать вопрос оформления крыши в собственность с помощью опытного юриста.

Подпишитесь на новые статьи о продаже квартир

90000 Apartment building types: Basic forms 90001 90002 While many apartment buildings are a mix or hybrid of types, three of the most often-used basic building forms are: 90003 90004 90005 The Block 90006 90005 The Tower 90006 90005 The Courtyard 90006 90011 The Block 90003 A block apartment type is usually wider than it is tall. The apartments are arranged off a corridor which can be single, or double-loaded. 90013 90002 This type of building is best used: 90013 90016 90005 90018 to create or continue a perimeter block development.Individual block buildings can contribute to a wider perimeter block development when they are built up to the street 90019 90006 90005 90018 when the placement of the building will not block views, outlook or daylight access for adjacent sites 90019 90006 90005 90018 when a strong urban form is desired, such as defining the edge of a street 90019 90006 90005 90018 in town centre areas where apartments are located above retail or commercial uses 90019 90006 90005 90018 on wide sites with good frontage to a street or open space.Problems can occur when this type is used on narrow sites with limited road frontage as it can lead to overlooking problems with neighbours. Ensure that buildings relate well to the street, and that there is a separation from neighbours and buildings within the site to protect privacy and achieve good sunlight admission. 90019 90006 90011 90018 90039 90019 90041 90039 90043 90041 90039 90043 90041 90039 90043 90002 The Tower 90013 90018 A tower apartment building has a vertical form and is generally free standing, and often has slimmer, more elegant proportions.This building type generally has a single centralised core and a limited number of apartments per floor. 90019 90002 The tower may have a base of two or more floors which can be arranged as a podium. 90013 90056 The roof of the podium can be landscaped and used as open space for the apartment residents. 90019 90002 A tower form, if well designed, can increase outdoor space on the site, maximizing the permeable area, and can increase levels of solar access and ventilation. 90013 90056 The (taller) tower apartment type is best used when: 90019 90016 90005 90018 the existing context has taller buildings, such as a central business district or town centre 90019 90006 90005 a strategy suggests or promotes the use of taller buildings such as towers 90006 90005 90018 the building is also a landmark, such as to signal a town centre 90019 90006 90005 mixed use is desired.Lower levels are generally suited to retail, commercial or community uses 90006 90005 site constraints, such as trees, or slope, mean a good outcome is to minimise the building footprint 90006 90005 a taller, thinner building would allow better views around the building than a lower wider one. 90006 90011 90080 90019 90080 Courtyard Apartments 90019 90056 A courtyard apartment building provides the ‘sides’ that enclose one or more open spaces (courtyards) on the site. The open spaces are generally communal and should provide a high quality landscaped environment and outlook.90019 90018 Depending on the size and orientation of the courtyard, the height of the building form may need to be limited to ensure adequate daylight access to the enclosed open space and the apartments. 90019.90000 Residential area concept 90001 90002 For the past hundred years, residential housing in Russia has been built according to standard projects: Moscow, Saint Petersburg, old provincial and industrial cities are full of Khrushchev and Brezhnev-era apartments and panel high-rise buildings. To replace the dull concrete structures with cramped cold apartments, the concept of a new residential area, cozy and friendly, was developed at the studio. 90003 90002 A typical residential area looks like a square bounded on all four sides by roads with sidewalks, bike paths, car parks and a bus stop.The square contains buildings of three types: small houses (towers with one entrance) in the middle and sectional (with several entrances) and gallery-style (where people enter their apartments through a shared balcony) houses in the corners. 90003 90002 The buildings do not exceed 5-7 floors in hight making the courtyards feel chambered, cozy and visible from the street. The territory contains private gardens (by the windows of first-floor apartments) and common areas, gardens and lawns. People are comfortable in this space: they can see the sky above, nothing is towering over them, they enjoy the beauty around them and feel safe.All the necessary shops and services are nearby. 90003 90002 Cars do not go inside the residential area, there are only pedestrian paths that can be used by service vehicles when necessary. Parking is located on surrounding streets. If desired, the developer can incorporate underground parking entrances to which can be accommodated by the plan. 90003 90002 The area provides opportunities for rest and recreation: the plan contains children’s and sports grounds, green lawns and gardens. Roofs of the buildings have pleasant rest areas.90003 90002 Spaces inside the area have varying degrees of privacy. The street, the corner gardens and the central square are places that are visible to and accessible by all people. The shared spaces that include interior grounds and rest areas on the roofs are designed to be used only by the residents of the area. The gardens located by the windows of the first-floor apartments are private territory. 90003 90002 If required, more buildings can be constructed in the area. 90003 90002 The new houses with super comfortable apartments, rooftop terraces and cozy yards completely change the traditional view of residential areas.90003 90002 The buildings are designed according to the special rules. 90003 90020 Residential building design principles 90021 90002 Everyone has their own vision of an ideal home. We designed houses where different people can find their dream apartment. 90003 90002 90025 Architecture 90026 90003 90002 The new houses look great in any season. Even though their design is standard, they create a diverse landscape. 90003 90002 The façades are ventilated: waterproof panels are mounted on a special frame and are then painted or covered with brick or fiber reinforced concrete, ensuring the apartments remain warm and quiet.The buildings are painted in light pastel colors with wood and brick styled elements. 90003 90002 Naturally, the new generation houses have decorative grilles for AC units and stained glass windows on the first floor. 90003 90002 90025 Ecology and economics 90026 90003 90002 Each apartment has a horizontal heating system equipped with a heating meter. It means that heat consumption is calculated for each apartment individually. 90003 90002 Public areas are equipped with motion sensors, so that lights come on only when someone is in the area.The buildings have a smart home system which allows the residents to control lighting and the entrance door from their apartment. 90003 90002 A special system collects rain and gray water (from kitchen and bathroom drains) to be used for heating and watering plants in the rooftop gardens. The gardens on the roofs hold water, providing additional insulation and making the city greener. Solar panels can also be installed on roofs. 90003 90002 The price of finished houses depends on finishing materials, the final layout, availability of underground parking and infrastructure on the first floors.90003 90002 The developed principles were used to create projects for three types of residential houses. 90003.90000 Average cost of building a 3 bedroom house [Complete Guide] 90001 90002 Average cost of building a 3 bedroom house in Kenya 90003 90004 Renting a house in Kenya is getting quite expensive and more Kenyans are looking into building a house rather than buying / renting. This paradigm shift is happening very fast and information regarding estimated cost of building a house is important. We have prepared an information article plus construction calculator to help you. 90005 90004 Ongoing 3 bedroom in Siaya, HPD Team 90005 90004 Typically, most 90009 three bedroom houses 90010 is the fact that they have three main bedroom (master bedroom en suite), a living rooms, dining area and a kitchen.A common toilets and bathrooms included. 90005 90004 There is a growing trend towards adoption of open plan kitchen layout in Kenya, and three bedroom houses are no exception. These types of layouts are quite prevalent in the western world, where individuals living within apartments and single bedroom units make use of the entire house as one space. 90005 90014 90004 Open Plan Kitchen 90005 90017 90009 What is the average cost of building a 3 bedroom house? 90010 90020 90004 Cost of building a 3 bedroom house varies a lot but depends on many factors such as the location, soil type, typography of land, size of the building (plinth area) and specification of materials among other factors.90005 90004 Construction of any project including a 3 bedroom house is done in stages and each stage has its cost component. Below is the percentage allocation of every stage: 90005 90025 90026 Substructure / Foundation — which includes foundations and slab: — 15% 90027 90026 Superstructure — which includes the main frame and walls: — 13% 90027 90026 Roofing — which includes trusses, mabatis, gutters, labour and other materials: — 21% 90027 90026 Doors & Windows — which includes doors, windows, and other security measures: — 11% 90027 90026 Finishing- which include plastering, tiling, painting, etc: — 25% 90027 90026 Interior fittings — which include closets, cabinets, kitchens, etc: — 4% 90027 90026 Plumbing fixings — which include sinks, showers, taps, flushing toilet, etc: — 5% 90027 90026 Electrical installations — which include sockets, switches, wiring, etc: — 6% 90027 90042 90004 It is important to understand that the highlighted points are quite general and can only give you a 90009 rough estimate of total costs 90010.90005 90004 We have categorize the major cost factors that significantly brings cost varies of any project 90005 90002 Check >> How To Save Money When Building A House 90003 90004 The quality of materials commonly have a huge impact on construction cost. Take for example hard wood flooring vs tile flooring, hard wood flooring will cost almost double the cost of tiles thus significantly affect the total cost. High quality finishes often classified as Executive Finishing (like hardwood floor, decra roof, gypsum ceiling, … etv) will significantly increase construction costs.90005 90004 To bring it into perspective, building a modest house (with standard finishes) in Nairobi costs can about Sh. 30,000 per square metre (SQM), and a high-end home costs upwards with executive finishing can cost up to Sh 45,000 per square metre. 90005 90004 The internal and external features of a house are key determinants of building costs. Reducing the size and number of windows, for example, can lower your building costs while using vaulted ceilings and high roof pitches can greatly increase your costs 90009.90010 90005 90002 90009 Also Check; 13 Common Types of Roofing in Kenya 90010 90003 90004 If you want your house to have a rectangular shape, then it will cost you less cash than a person who is going for a house with angles as well as corners. The corners and angles will result to requirement of intensive labor not forgetting the fact that more materials will be required. The shape of the roof can also add or reduce the cost of building a house. For instance, a hip roof requires more materials and labor than a gable one.90005 90004 90005 90067 90026 90002 90009 Size of the house (plinth area) 90010 90003 90027 90074 90004 The size of a house is also an important consideration.The more spacious the house is, the higher the plinth area and since the building cost is done st per square metre (SQM). Cost per square metre is from Ksh.30,000 and above as indicated above. The average plinth area of ​​a 3 bed-roomed bungalow is 100 m2, therefore total costs will be 100m2 X 30,000 / — = Ksh. 3M. Check the calculator below for your customized plinth area and finishes.90005 90002 Also Check: How to Calculate Labour Cost When Constructing 90003 90004 90080 90009 Note 90010: With this information however, you will require the services of a quantity surveyor for an accurate and detailed budget estimates. 90005 90004 90085 90009 Check estimated construction cost using the calculator below! 90010 90088 90005 90002 How To Use The Calculator 90003 90004 90009 Step 1 90010: Adjust the Plinth Area to estimated Total Area of ​​your upcoming house. E.g, 2 Bedroom = 60 Square Metres, 3 Bedroom from 80 Square Metres, etc … 90005 90004 90009 Step 2 90010: Choose the Type of Finishing, Roofing Type and Flooring Type. 90085 Approximate project cost 90088 will be indicated below this. 90005 90004 90009 Step 3 90010: You can also include contact details and submit 90005 90004 90009 [email protected] 90010 90005 90004 90009 HPD Consult 90010 90005 .90000 construction | History, Types, Examples, & Facts 90001 90002 90003 Construction 90004, also called 90003 building construction 90004, the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. 90007 90003 construction of apartment buildings 90004 Apartment buildings under construction in Cambridge, England. 90010 Andrew Dunn 90011 90002 Construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate.Constructed shelters were one means by which human beings were able to adapt themselves to a wide variety of climates and become a global species. 90007 90002 Human shelters were at first very simple and perhaps lasted only a few days or months. Over time, however, even temporary structures evolved into such highly refined forms as the igloo. Gradually more durable structures began to appear, particularly after the advent of agriculture, when people began to stay in one place for long periods. The first shelters were dwellings, but later other functions, such as food storage and ceremony, were housed in separate buildings.Some structures began to have symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction between architecture and building. 90007 90002 The history of building is marked by a number of trends. One is the increasing durability of the materials used. Early building materials were perishable, such as leaves, branches, and animal hides. Later, more durable natural materials-such as clay, stone, and timber-and, finally, synthetic materials-such as brick, concrete, metals, and plastics-were used.Another is a quest for buildings of ever greater height and span; this was made possible by the development of stronger materials and by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit them to greater advantage. A third major trend involves the degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and sound levels, humidity, odours, air speed, and other factors that affect human comfort has been possible. Yet another trend is the change in energy available to the construction process, starting with human muscle power and developing toward the powerful machinery used today.90007 Get exclusive access to content from our тисяча сімсот шістьдесят вісім First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today 90002 The present state of construction is complex. There is a wide range of building products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types or markets. The design process for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safety standards, and design professionals who determine user needs and design a building to meet those needs.The construction process is also highly organized; it includes the manufacturers of building products and systems, the craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the contractors who employ and coordinate the work of the craftsmen, and consultants who specialize in such aspects as construction management, quality control, and insurance. 90007 90002 Construction today is a significant part of industrial culture, a manifestation of its diversity and complexity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces, which can produce a widely varied built environment to serve the diverse needs of society.This article first traces the history of construction, then surveys its development at the present time. For treatment of the aesthetic considerations of building design, 90021 see 90022 architecture. For further treatment of historical development, 90021 see 90022 art and architecture, Anatolian; art and architecture, Arabian; art and architecture, Egyptian; art and architecture, Iranian; art and architecture, Mesopotamian; art and architecture, Syro-Palestinian; architecture, African; art and architecture, Oceanic; architecture, Western; arts, Central Asian; arts, East Asian; arts, Islamic; arts, Native American; arts, South Asian; arts, Southeast Asian.90007 90026 The history of construction 90027 90026 Primitive building: the Stone Age 90027 90002 The hunter-gatherers of the late Stone Age, who moved about a wide area in search of food, built the earliest temporary shelters that appear in the archaeological record. Excavations at a number of sites in Europe dated to before 12,000 bce show circular rings of stones that are believed to have formed part of such shelters. They may have braced crude huts made of wooden poles or have weighted down the walls of tents made of animal skins, presumably supported by central poles.90007 90002 A tent illustrates the basic elements of environmental control that are the concern of construction. The tent creates a membrane to shed rain and snow; cold water on the human skin absorbs body heat. The membrane reduces wind speed as well; air over the human skin also promotes heat loss. It controls heat transfer by keeping out the hot rays of the sun and confining heated air in cold weather. It also blocks out light and provides visual privacy. The membrane must be supported against the forces of gravity and wind; a structure is necessary.Membranes of hides are strong in tension (stresses imposed by stretching forces), but poles must be added to take compression (stresses imposed by compacting forces). Indeed, much of the history of construction is the search for more sophisticated solutions to the same basic problems that the tent was set out to solve. The tent has continued in use to the present. The Saudi Arabian goats ‘hair tent, the Mongolian yurt with its collapsible wooden frame and felt coverings, and the American Indian tepee with its multiple pole supports and double membrane are more refined and elegant descendants of the crude shelters of the early hunter-gatherers.90007 90002 The agricultural revolution, dated to about 10,000 bce, gave a major impetus to construction. People no longer traveled in search of game or followed their herds but stayed in one place to tend their fields. Dwellings began to be more permanent. Archaeological records are scanty, but in the Middle East are found the remains of whole villages of round dwellings called tholoi, whose walls are made of packed clay; all traces of roofs have disappeared. In Europe tholoi were built of dry-laid stone with domed roofs; there are still surviving examples (of more recent construction) of these beehive structures in the Alps.In later Middle Eastern tholoi a rectangular antechamber or entrance hall appeared, attached to the main circular chamber-the first examples of the rectangular plan form in building. Still later the circular form was dropped in favour of the rectangle as dwellings were divided into more rooms and more dwellings were placed together in settlements. The tholoi marked an important step in the search for durability; they were the beginning of masonry construction. 90007 90002 Evidence of composite construction of clay and wood, the so-called wattle-and-daub method, is also found in Europe and the Middle East.The walls were made of small saplings or reeds, which were easy to cut with stone tools. They were driven into the ground, tied together laterally with vegetable fibres, and then plastered over with wet clay to give added rigidity and weatherproofing. The roofs have not survived, but the structures were probably covered with crude thatch or bundled reeds. Both round and rectangular forms are found, usually with central hearths. 90007 90002 Heavier timber buildings also appeared in Neolithic (New Stone Age) cultures, although the difficulties of cutting large trees with stone tools limited the use of sizable timbers to frames.These frames were usually rectangular in plan, with a central row of columns to support a ridgepole and matching rows of columns along the long walls; rafters were run from the ridgepole to the wall beams. The lateral stability of the frame was achieved by burying the columns deep in the ground; the ridgepole and rafters were then tied to the columns with vegetable fibres. The usual roofing material was thatch: dried grasses or reeds tied together in small bundles, which in turn were tied in an overlapping pattern to the light wooden poles that spanned between the rafters.Horizontal thatched roofs leak rain badly, but, if they are placed at the proper angle, the rainwater runs off before it has time to soak through. Primitive builders soon determined the roof pitch that would shed the water but not the thatch. Many types of infill were used in the walls of these frame houses, including clay, wattle and daub, tree bark (favoured by American Woodland Indians), and thatch. In Polynesia and Indonesia, where such houses are still built, they are raised above the ground on stilts for security and dryness; the roofing is often made of leaves and the walls are largely open to allow air movement for natural cooling.Another variation of the frame was found in Egypt and the Middle East, where timbers were substituted for bundles of reeds. 90007.